HistoryEgyptian ConquestFor more than a century, from about 1700 until 1540 BC1, Kush controlled Lower Nubia and partially Upper Egypt, however due to lack of archeological work we do not have much evidence of the Kushite state at this particular time other than the evidence found in the Egyptian archeology2. Although full Egyptian hagemony was not restored until 1640 BC3, the Theban dynasty of Upper Egypt, with the help of Nubian-Medjayu troops from the Nubian desert4, was able to expel the Hyksos from Lower Egypt. Hence, and for a permanent relief, decided to end the threatening Kushite expansion.
In About 1540 BC, Egyptian pharaohs reasserted their control over Lower Nubia. Nonetheless, for more than a century Egypt and Kush fought fierce battles. Finally the war ended with the defeat of Kush in about 1460 BC5. Sometime after 1500 BC the kingdom of Kerma was weakened and the Egyptians succeeded in controling Upper Nubia, and of course Lower Nubia. Yet, the region of Southern Nubia remained independent. The Egyptians founded Aniba, as the capital of Lower Nubia and Soleb as the capital of Upper Nubia, although Soleb was already an important Kushite center before the Egyptians conquest. Kush was placed under the governship of a single Vicory. The Viceory was represented by deputies and smaller Kushite princes who over looked the affairs of the various provinces and regions of Nubia6. The relationship between Egypt and the independent southern Nubia is not well understood, basically due to lack of excavations in Southern Nubia. An early assumption, that remained unexamined till now is that Southern Nubia was empty of inhabitants. Yet, Egyptian chronology records occasional military clashes with Southern Nubian chiefdoms, which clearly proves the fallacy of the assumption. Obviously, these Southern Nubian chiefdoms remained strong enough to prevent further Egyptian advancement in their territory. Nevertheless, it is evident that these chiefdoms had traded extensively with Egypt7, with its highly valued resources such as ebony, slaves, gold, and rare animals such as elephants and apes, which were brought from regions further south.
The Kushite archeology of this period is not well defined. Many historians assume that during the Egyptian colonization, the Kushites went through cultural transformation to become Egyptianized8. The reason for this assumption is that the archeology of pre colonized Kush reveals a distinctive material culture different from that of post colonization. However, the archeological evidence for the Nubian culture prior to the Egyptian conquest is too little and uneven to determine the features of the Kushite culture. Most of the archeological efforts for this period have been done for Lower Nubia, which show a considerable contrast in cultural characteristics to those of Kerma in Upper Nubia9. In the end, only future excavations can provide us with enough information to speak adequately of this culture. Egyptian chronology of this period reflects that the Kushites were deeply active in Egyptian affairs. Kushite recruits, largely from upper Nubia, composed the cream of the Egyptian army. Some Nubians also participated in the Egyptian military but as independent allies, such as the Medjay-Nubians from Eastern Nubia.
Around 1070 BC, the Egyptian Kingdom began to wither and finally lost control over Kush10. After 1070 BC all of Kush was independent. Two centuries later around 860 BC, the Kushite Kingdom began a systematic control of Egypt11. What happened in Nubia during these two centuries remains a mystery since the only evidence worthy of recognition for this period is largely confined to the excavated cemetery of Kurru, as well as Jebel Barkal and some remarks in ancient Egyptian and Assyrian records12. While Nubia ruled Egypt, the Kurru cemetery was to become the main royal burial ground for the rest of Kushite history. There were six tombs of circular structure found along with succeeding four masonry-cut mastabas13. The tombs certainly belonged to indigenous Kushite rulers, who ruled Upper, Southern, and perhaps Lower Nubia14. Egyptian chronology of this period highlights the strong presence of Kushites in the Egyptian government and military structure. In the Egyptian army the Kushites fought as independent units15, and Kushite leaders played essential rolls shaping the history of Egypt. For example, the Kushite military general, Dedu16, who served under Tuthmosis III, lead the Medjay-Nubians to crush a revolt in the Egyptian territory of Kadesh in Syria17. Others like Zerah the Kushite, who served under Oskoron I, commanded the famous Egyptian campaign in Judah18. The little known evidence about Kushite culture before the Egyptian conquest is enough to deny the assumption of many historians that the Nubian culture had enormously changed to adopt to new norms. The presented evidence that the architectural plans of Kerma buildings were similar to those of the Egyptians19, is insufficient because the Kushite architectural structures stayed almost the same throughout Kushite history.
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