BurialsNapatan Meroitic PeriodAfter the reformation of the independent rule in Nubia in about 1070 BC1, the Kushite population grew in number and developed in complexity. The Napatan-Meroitic era is more than nine thousand years. Unfortunately, for such an expanded time, we have no information other than a vague perception about the cultural and/or religious aspects. The purpose of this article is to provide a general and basic out look on the basic burial traditions practiced in ancient Nubia as concluded from archeological excavations and historical records.
As mentioned, during the Naptan Meroitic period the Kushite population grew in number and populated more distances along the stretch of the Nile valley, from Elephantine in the north to El-Gezeera region south of Khartoum2. However, the major cemeteries are located within the big ancient cities of El-Kurru, Napata, Sanam, and Meroe. The beginning of the Napatan-Meroitic era is dated to the first royal burials uncovered at Kurru since the end of Egyptian rule. The first royal burial there belonged to, probably, a king (i.e. name unknown-labeled ‘Lord-A’), whose reign is thought to have begun in 890 BC3. Hence most historians consider this date to be the starting date for the Napatan-Meroitic period. Many known burial traditions from the Kerma period continued into the Napatan-Meroitic period. These include bed burials within tumuli, i.e. often associated with royal burials, and the tradition of placing the deceased on bed4. On later periods more variations in burial traditions came into the scene. Coffins were the most popular form of royal burials that was applied to the earliest rulers at El-Kurru5. The basic structure of the coffins is usually made of wood and, often, inlayed with gold, ivory, as well as other materials for decorations. On the other hand, coffins are also frequent in non-royal cemeteries. Sarcophagi burials (i.e. associated with pyramid superstructures) were frequent during the Meroitic period6. Sarcophagi were usually made of stone7. Rich people sometimes built themselves small pyramids or simply roofed their tombs with stone blocks, resembling the form of mastabas8.
Cemeteries of the commoners varied greatly in grave sizes and findings, depending on the status of the diseased. The religious rituals were practiced at the specific location and time period. The practice of Mummification persisted in the Napatan-Meroitic period and was not by any means limited to the royal class9. Yet, the majority of the locals were buried in simple pits. In ancient Nubia the diseased were placed on different body orientations depending on the location and date of the burial ground. For example while in Kerma the bodies were usually contracted facing north , in El Kurru (in the Napatan period) they were normally laid in an east-west orientation10. Side-niche pits were made only to accommodate the body on its side. On other cases the body was placed on its back. Also, Cases where the bodies were placed on crouched position are also abundant. Various conclusions may be drawn regarding the deceased body orientation at the period. Excavations suggested that orientation was usually towards the east as the case with el Kurru royal burials, which supports the popular religious theme of rebirth as connected to the direction of sun rising11. The case differs with other cemeteries, where bodies were found buried with diverse orientations. Hence, no conclusion can possibly be made. Grave FindingsAccording to Kushite beliefs, the dead should by accompany in the afterlife by what they possessed in their life. Accordingly the diseased were buried along with their important possessions. As a result, archeologists discovered treasures and diverse daily life materials in graves, which enabled us to gain information and improve our perception about Nubian life. The excavated royal graves, including pyramid tomb chambers, contained some of the ancient world’s finest treasures. The treasures included seals, furniture, weapons, horse riding implements such as trappings, jewelry, and personal ornament materials such as kohl and perfume pots12.
Pottery and ceramics, some of which rated as some of the ancient worlds finest types on the other hand, were as well found in extensive amounts. Tomb chambers from the Meroitic era also included large quantities of imported materials from around the Mediterranean world. One tomb, contained silk from Central Asia, and another contained an amphora from Roman-Algeria13. Of special concern are findings that improved our knowledge of the Kushite religious beliefs. For example, the walls of the tomb chamber of king Tanwetamani's mother (Qalhata) were painted with religious motifs that described judgment of the diseased in the after life14. Religious texts usually inserted within the mummy’s wrap have helped improve our knowledge of the Nubian religion. Objects such as shabits, and canopic jars shed light upon the rituals practiced by the ancient Nubians. The jars and such items were discovered in extensive amounts. On the other hand burials of lower classes contained everyday life materials, the kind of which depended upon the status of the diseased. Accompanying pottery and ceramics were personal ornaments such as kohl, Jewelry, and figurines of gods and goddesses.
Practices of animal sacrificing seem to have continued in Kushite traditions. In a royal grave at Kurru, twenty-four horses were found sacrificed in connection with the sun deity represented by a falcon and a sun disk. It has been noted by ancient writers that some Caucasian tribes practiced a similar tradition of sacrificing horses to the sun15 . Human sacrificing, though small in number but, nonetheless, continued. Many rich graves contained carelessly slaughtered persons who seemed to have been probably servants16. Almost every grave with a superstructure contained a funerary chapel. There, fragments of broken pottery were often found. This ritual of breaking pottery after a funerary ceremony has taken place since the Kerma period and clearly has continued into the Napatan-Meroitic period17. This ritual is not limited to graves with chapels. The quality of the pottery represented the economic status of the deceased. On rich graves, shreds of fine pottery were discovered, while in poorer graves the quality of the pottery is much less19. Animal sacrifices in front of the grave or tomb chamber were regularly performed.
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